Pyu Horse-Headed Yaksini (Assamukhi) Bronze | Early Burmese Statuary

Pyu Horse-Headed Yaksini (Assamukhi) Bronze | Early Burmese Statuary

One of the most intriguing items in our collection is this Pyu horse-headed Yaksini (Assamukhi) bronze disc, acquired in Myanmar years ago. We often looked at it and wondered how an artifact with such clear tantric elements ended up in a country defined by Theravada traditions. As we explored the deeper history of early Burmese animism and indigenous spirit worship, the context finally fell into place.

Padakusalamānava Jātaka (Jātaka 432).

This Pyu – Mon Yaksini Aśvamukhī – Early Burmese Bronze disc is loaded with symbolic images. In the centre of the disc there’s a horse-headed female spirit, yakṣiṇī Aśvamukhī, also known as Beluma in Burma. She is seen here seated in the lalitasana position on a double-lotus pedestal, with a serpent (nāga) on her proper left side, a celestial bird (hintha or haṃsa) perched above her head near the rim, a kneeling figure in prayer, and a childlike figure standing in her hand. The outer border features wave scrolls (jala-taranga) representing the cosmic ocean (Cakravāḷa). All of these figures together tell the story of the horse-headed ogress, a tale that’s woven deep into Burmese folklore.

We think that this disc is a unique Pyu-Mon interpretation of the Aśvamukhī story, likely crafted before the Pagan period. The scenes represent a mix of early Lower Burma animistic beliefs incorporating Brahmanical/Hindu iconography and local spirit veneration (Nat worship). On stylistic grounds, we believe that this bronze disc may be a rare surviving example of early esoteric ritual art from Burma

The central figure is clearly female, with bare breasts and exposed genitalia, traits tied to early Southeast Asian fertility and guardian spirits. Animal-headed figures are pretty common in early Pyu and Mon art, but you don’t really see them in later Burmese iconography.

Burmese Naga Worship

The nāga appears as a single, long serpent with very little cresting, typical of early Pyu and Mon art. It lacks the multi-headed, flame-crested style of Arakanese carving and the heavily decorated serpents seen in the late Konbaung and Mandalay periods.

The presence of the hintha bird and the naga points directly to early Mon artistic traditions. Its rounded, full-bodied form fits the classic Mon style seen from the Dvaravati through the Hanthawaddy periods. Placing the hintha alongside the naga is a traditional Mon motif, often featured on foundation deposits, seals, and votive bronzes.

Cosmic Order and Balance

On this bronze the hintha sits near the top of the relief, with the subterranean nāga below on the opposite side, balancing the lower and upper worlds:

• Sacred Authority: In Mon tradition, the hintha symbolizes royal power and religious purity. The bird is the vehicle (vāhana) of Brahmā, but the kneeling figure on this disc is more likely the Brahmin from the Padakusalamānava Jātaka (Jātaka 432) that was captured by the Yaksini.
• Balancing Earth and Sky: While the nāga and horse-headed yakṣiṇī belong to earth, water, and the wild, the hintha represents the higher world of the Dhamma. Placing it near the top shows that even wild forest spirits are ultimately brought under Buddhist protection and order.

The weapon held in the Yaksini’s hand

The weapon she holds in her left hand has a thick, single-edged blade that curves slightly upward at the tip carries two complementary layers of meaning:

• The Esoteric Cleaver (Kartikā): In Tantric Buddhist art, a curved chopper (kartikā) is a standard attribute of wrathful female guardians, ḍākinīs, and yakṣiṇīs. Symbolically, the blade cuts through ignorance, ego, and attachments.
• The Local Utility Knife (Dha-mauk): In Mon and Burmese art, this blade adapts the Indian kartikā into a familiar regional tool. Its thick, curved profile matches the traditional forest cleaver (dha-mauk), tying the horse-headed ogress directly to her jungle habitat.

The Mon-Pyu Connection (c. 200 BCE – 1050 CE)

The Pyu city-states of Śrī Kṣetra, Beikthano, and Halin were home to some of mainland Southeast Asia’s earliest Buddhist communities. Pyu artists worked with both terracotta and bronze, casting and carving plaques with female spirits, coiling nāgas, and guardian figures, and this disc displays many of these elements.

• Brahmanical Elements: Shown through early inscriptions and terracotta reliefs.
• Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Practice: Proven by bronze votive figures, ritual objects, and gold-leaf texts.
• Local Spirit Veneration: Local animist traditions (nats) were absorbed directly into Buddhist protection rituals.
• Female & Guardian Imagery: Figures with prominent female features tied to earth fertility and protection, alongside animal-headed spirits and guardian yakṣas.

Aśvamukhī in the Indian Tantric Tradition

James Fergusson (Tree and Serpent Worship, 1868) recognized that yakṣa and nāga worship spirits tied to earth, water, and fertility were strong beliefs in early Indian religion.

In Indian Tantric texts, the horse-faced yakṣiṇī Aśvamukhī appears with other equine-headed yoginīs. She is often seen as a wrathful guardian who protects boundaries and wards off harm. Depicted with a horse’s head on a human female body, she combines fertility with fierce protective power.

The figure on the bronze disc shares several traits with classical Indian depictions of Aśvamukhī

• Exposed female features, emphasizing fertility and guardian power.
• A horse’s head on a human body, marking her as a protective animal spirit.
• A fierce, protective posture, designed to ward off harmful forces.
• A mixed religious context, combining local spirit worship with Hindu and Tantric ideas.

Local Adaptation in Southeast Asia

While this Burmese bronze disc shares many similarities with those seen in early Buddhist iconography from India, it is distinctly local creation and lacks the refinement seen in Indian Buddhist art.

Several indicators in this disc point to its regional origin:

• The Hintha Bird: A classic Mon symbol of purity and authority, not found paired with Aśvamukhī in Indian art.
• Pyu-Mon Serpent Style: A single, smooth nāga rather than the multi-headed or heavily decorated Indian forms.
• The Kneeling Devotee: The praying posture matches regional donor and royal figures.
• Heavy Bronze Casting: The thick, archaic casting method matches early Pyu and Mon ritual metalwork from the 1st millennium.
• Local Symbolism: The layout blends Mon royal symbols, local spirit (nat) concepts, and esoteric Buddhist imagery into a single piece.

Gilding and Alloy Characteristics

The disc is cast in a heavy, archaic style, without the thin walls or refined finishing of later Burmese bronzes. Bright gold flecks visible on the back beneath layers of green and cuprite corrosion suggest original gilding or a high-copper alloy. Similar surface traits appear on 1st-millennium Pyu and Mon ritual bronzes, which often used mercury gilding or gold foil over heavy bronze bases or early copper-alloy votive plaques, where gold highlights were applied directly to key figures and symbols. The disc features a heavy, thick-walled cast with an irregular relief depth, weighing 7.90 kilograms and measuring 26 cm diameter.

Oxidation and Corrosion

The corrosion on the disc penetrates deep into the metal rather than sitting on the surface, showing thick mineral crusting and pitting. This weathering suggests long-term burial in damp soil or centuries spent sealed inside a brick relic chamber, typical of authentic early foundation plaques. Based on the heavy casting and combined imagery, the disc most likely dates from the 7th to 10th century CE.

As a rare surviving piece from pre-Pagan Lower Burma, this object shows how early Pyu and Mon communities adopted and reshaped Indian Tantric ideas. Identifying the figure as a regional version of the yakṣiṇī Aśvamukhī shows evidence that female protector spirits and esoteric rituals were active in the region before the Pagan period.

The Early Esoteric Landscape: Śrī Kṣetra and Pagan

Archaeological finds from Śrī Kṣetra, the main Pyu capital from the 7th century onward, show that Pyu religious life brought together Theravāda, Hindu, and Esoteric Mahāyāna traditions. Figures like Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, Lokanātha, Jambhala, and the horse-headed Hayagrīva were well established in Pyu art before Pagan adopted them.

Comparative Evidence: The Abeyadana Frescoes

This imagery survived right into the early Pagan period. In Gordon Luce’s book Old Burma – Early Pagan (Volume III), he recorded and reproduced frescoes of horse-headed female figures (Aśvamukhī) from the 11th-century Abeyadana Temple, famous for its wall paintings of Mahāyāna, Tantric, and Hindu deities. Seeing these horse-headed figures in 11th-century murals shows just how long this protective spirit tradition lasted in Burma.

Tantric and Brahmanical Influences

Lower Burma served as a gateway for Tantric Buddhism traveling from eastern India into mainland Southeast Asia. You see this mix across the region – Mahāyāna bodhisattvas at Śrī Kṣetra, Tantric ritual items in Mon foundation deposits, and Hindu gods.